Lesson 1 · Complete Study Guide
逐句双语 · 语法 · 全词汇美式 IPA · 具体修辞 · 全部练习答案
主旨：交谈是所有人类活动中最具社交性的一项，它是人类特有的一项活动。
作用：开篇建立《Pub Talk and the King’s English》的叙述或论证起点，交代核心对象，并为下文展开设定观察角度。
先写“交谈是所有人类活动中最具社交性的一项，它是人类特有的一项活动。”，再转入“无论动物之间彼此交流的方式多么复杂，它们的 交流都不能被称作交谈。”，形成前提—发展、描写—评价或问—答关系。
主要关系：转折／对照、并列／递进
However intricate the ways in which animals communicate with each other, they do not indulge in anything that deserves the name of conversation.
句型：复合句/复杂句。句首 However + 形容词/副词构成让步结构，意义相当于“无论……多么……”；含关系或连接成分 that, which，需结合先行词辨认定语从句/名词从句。
Sentence 1.1Conversation is the most sociable of all human activities.
Sentence 1.2And it is an activity only of humans.
Sentence 1.3However intricate the ways in which animals communicate with each other, they do not indulge in anything that deserves the name of conversation.
主旨：交谈的魅力在于，人们不知道它从哪儿开始，也不知道它最终会扯到什么地方去，因为它有时迂回曲折，有时跳跃奔 腾，有时火花四溅，有时又仅仅是热情洋溢。
作用：承接前文继续发展中心话题，通过事实、描写、解释或评价补充新的论证层次。
先写“交谈的魅力在于，人们不知道它从哪儿开始，也不知道它最终会扯到什么地方去，因为它有时迂回曲折，有时跳跃奔 腾，有时火花四溅，有……”；中部推进到“争论可能会是交谈的一部分，但争论的目的并不是为了使他人信服。”；最后落在“也许他们突然觉得应该把自己最得意的一件轶事拿出来讲讲，但一转眼大家已经在谈别的 事，插话的机会没了，他们也就随其自然。”，构成起点—展开—落点的层次。
主要关系：转折／对照、并列／递进
The charm of conversation is that it does not really start from anywhere, and no one has any idea where it will go as it meanders or leaps and sparkles or just glows.
句型：复合句/复杂句。含关系或连接成分 that, where，需结合先行词辨认定语从句/名词从句。
Sentence 2.1The charm of conversation is that it does not really start from anywhere, and no one has any idea where it will go as it meanders or leaps and sparkles or just glows.
Sentence 2.2The enemy of good conversation is the person who has “something to say.’
Sentence 2.3Conversation is not for making a point.
Sentence 2.4Argument may often be a part of it, but the purpose of the argument is not to convince.
Sentence 2.5There is no winning in conversation.
Sentence 2.6In fact, the best conversationalists are those who are prepared to lose.
Sentence 2.7Suddenly they see the moment for one of their best anecdotes, but in a flash the conversation has moved on and the opportunity is lost.
Sentence 2.8They are ready to let it go.
主旨：也许是由于我在英国酒馆长大，我觉得酒馆闲聊有着独特魅力。
作用：承接前文继续发展中心话题，通过事实、描写、解释或评价补充新的论证层次。
先写“也许是由于我在英国酒馆长大，我觉得酒馆闲聊有着独特魅力。”；中部推进到“他们有人也许正面临着婚姻危机，有人也许恋爱失败，甚至有人正经历着不顺心的事儿。”；最后落在“他们就像大仲马笔下的三个火枪手，虽朝夕相处，但却并不过问彼此的生活或者窥探他人内心深处的秘密。”，构成起点—展开—落点的层次。
主要关系：因果、并列／递进
They are like the musketeers of Dumas who, although they lived side by side with each other, did not delve into each other’s lives or the recesses of their thoughts and feelings.
句型：复合句/复杂句。含关系或连接成分 who，需结合先行词辨认定语从句/名词从句；含从属连词 although，构成时间、原因、让步、条件或比较状语。
Sentence 3.1Perhaps it is because of my upbringing in English pubs that I think bar conversation has a charm of its own.
Sentence 3.2Bar friends are not deeply involved in each other’s lives.
Sentence 3.3They are companions, not intimates.
Sentence 3.4The fact that their marriages may be on the rocks, or that their love affairs have broken or even that they got out of bed on the wrong side is simply not a concern.
Sentence 3.5They are like the musketeers of Dumas who, although they lived side by side with each other, did not delve into each other’s lives or the recesses of their thoughts and feelings.
主旨：一天晚上，就是如此情形。
作用：承接前文继续发展中心话题，通过事实、描写、解释或评价补充新的论证层次。
先写“一天晚上，就是如此情形。”；中部推进到“谈了半天也没有一个中心话 题，事实上也不需要有一个中心话题。”；最后落在“我记不起那个伙伴的话是在什么情 况下说出来的——她显然不是预先想好来酒馆里说的，那也不是什么不吐不快的话——但是她那句话自然……”，构成起点—展开—落点的层次。
主要关系：转折／对照、并列／递进
Tt was on such an occasion the other evening, as the conversation moved desultorily here and there, from the most commonplace to thoughts of Jupiter, without any focus and with no need for one, that suddenly the alchemy of conversation took place, and all at once there was a focus.
句型：复合句/复杂句。使用 there be 存现结构，真正信息焦点位于 be 之后；含关系或连接成分 that，需结合先行词辨认定语从句/名词从句；多重逗号成分构成长句，注意并列项、插入语与主谓主干的边界。
Sentence 4.1Tt was on such an occasion the other evening, as the conversation moved desultorily here and there, from the most commonplace to thoughts of Jupiter, without any focus and with no need for one, that suddenly the alchemy of conversation took place, and all at once there was a focus.
Sentence 4.2I do not remember what made one of our companions say it—she clearly had not come into the bar to say it, it was not something that was pressing on her mind—but her remark fell quite naturally into the talk.
主旨：“几天前，有人告诉我说，‘标准英语’是一个含有贬义的词语，它指的是人们不应当使用的语言。”
作用：以人物对话推进情节和观念冲突；语气、答非所问、重复或反转同时承担人物刻画作用。
段落围绕一个完整表达展开，核心判断、补充成分和语气重点集中在同一语义单元中。
主要关系：语义承接与信息递进
“Someone told me the other day that the phrase, ‘the King’s English, was a term of criticism, that it means language which one should not properly use.”
句型：复合句/复杂句。含关系或连接成分 that, which，需结合先行词辨认定语从句/名词从句。
Sentence 5.1“Someone told me the other day that the phrase, ‘the King’s English, was a term of criticism, that it means language which one should not properly use.”
主旨：交谈立即迸发出火花。
作用：承接前文继续发展中心话题，通过事实、描写、解释或评价补充新的论证层次。
先写“交谈立即迸发出火花。”；中部推进到“最后，当然，像处理所有这种场合下的意见分歧一样，大家说好第二天 早上去查证一下。”；最后落在“但酒馆闲聊并不需要解决什么问题，大家仍然可以糊里糊涂地继续闲扯。”，构成起点—展开—落点的层次。
主要关系：转折／对照、并列／递进
There were affirmations and protests and denials, and of course the promise, made in all such conversation, that we would look it up in the morning.
句型：复合句/复杂句。使用 there be 存现结构，真正信息焦点位于 be 之后；含关系或连接成分 that，需结合先行词辨认定语从句/名词从句。
Sentence 6.1The glow of the conversation burst into flames.
Sentence 6.2There were affirmations and protests and denials, and of course the promise, made in all such conversation, that we would look it up in the morning.
Sentence 6.3That would settle it; but conversation does not need to be settled; it could still go ignorantly on.
主旨：告诉她“标准英语”是这种含义的，是位澳大利亚人。
作用：承接前文继续发展中心话题，通过事实、描写、解释或评价补充新的论证层次。
先写“告诉她“标准英语”是这种含义的，是位澳大利亚人。”；中部推进到“于是五分钟之内，大家就仿佛到了澳大利亚。”；最后落在“上层阶 级每每试图制定一些规则让下层阶级“讲什么样的英语”时，总会遭到下层阶级的抗拒。”，构成起点—展开—落点的层次。
主要关系：语义承接与信息递进
It was an Australian who had given her such a definition of “the King’s English,” which produced some rather tart remarks about what one could expect from the descendants of convicts.
句型：复合句/复杂句。含 It is/was ... that/who 强调结构；含关系或连接成分 which, who，需结合先行词辨认定语从句/名词从句。
Sentence 7.1It was an Australian who had given her such a definition of “the King’s English,” which produced some rather tart remarks about what one could expect from the descendants of convicts.
Sentence 7.2We had traveled in five minutes to Australia.
Sentence 7.3Of course, there would be resistance to the King’s English in such a society.
Sentence 7.4There is always resistance in the lower classes to any attempt by an upper class to lay down rules for “English as it should be spoken.”
主旨：看看撒克逊农民和诺曼底征服者之间的语言障碍吧。
作用：承接前文继续发展中心话题，通过事实、描写、解释或评价补充新的论证层次。
先写“看看撒克逊农民和诺曼底征服者之间的语言障碍吧。”；中部推进到“孰是 孰非，无关紧要。”；最后落在“交谈依旧热烈地进行着。”，构成起点—展开—落点的层次。
主要关系：并列／递进
The conversation had swung from Australian convicts of the 19th century to the English peasants of the 12th century.
句型：简单句或并列句。以直接陈述为主；先确认主语、限定谓语和宾语/表语，再处理介词短语。
Sentence 8.1Look at the language barrier between the Saxon churls and their Norman conquerors.
Sentence 8.2The conversation had swung from Australian convicts of the 19th century to the English peasants of the 12th century.
Sentence 8.3Who was right, who was wrong, did not matter.
Sentence 8.4The conversation was on wings.
主旨：有人列举了一个众所周知但仍值得深思的例子。
作用：承接前文继续发展中心话题，通过事实、描写、解释或评价补充新的论证层次。
先写“有人列举了一个众所周知但仍值得深思的例子。”；中部推进到“田里放着 的牛叫“cattle”，餐桌上吃的牛肉却叫“beef”（源自法语的boeuf）。”；最后落在“这一切向我们证实了诺曼底征服后英国文化上形成了深刻阶级裂痕。”，构成起点—展开—落点的层次。
主要关系：转折／对照、条件／选择、时间／次序、并列／递进
When we talk of meat on our tables we use French words; when we speak of the animals from which the meat comes we use Anglo-Saxon words.
句型：复合句/复杂句。含关系或连接成分 which，需结合先行词辨认定语从句/名词从句；含从属连词 when，构成时间、原因、让步、条件或比较状语；分号或破折号连接/补充多个信息层次，阅读时先拆分主干再处理插入说明。
Sentence 9.1Someone took one of the best-known of examples, which is still always worth the reconsidering.
Sentence 9.2When we talk of meat on our tables we use French words; when we speak of the animals from which the meat comes we use Anglo-Saxon words.
Sentence 9.3It is a pig in its sty; it is pork (porc) on the table.
Sentence 9.4They are cattle in the fields, but we sit down to beef (boeuf).
Sentence 9.5Chickens become poultry (poulet), and a calf becomes veal (veau).
Sentence 9.6Even if our menus were not written in French out of snobbery, the English we used in them would still be Norman English.
Sentence 9.7What all this tells us is of a deep class rift in the culture of England after the Norman Conquest.
主旨：撒克逊农民们辛勤耕种土地和饲养家畜，但却吃不起肉，它们都到了诺曼底人的餐桌上。
作用：承接前文继续发展中心话题，通过事实、描写、解释或评价补充新的论证层次。
先写“撒克逊农民们辛勤耕种土地和饲养家畜，但却吃不起肉，它们都到了诺曼底人的餐桌上。”；中部推进到“农民们被允许吃在田间乱窜 的兔子，由于兔子肉十分廉价，诺曼底贵族自然对此不屑一顾。”；最后落在“因此兔子一词，无论是作为动物还是餐桌上的肉，都 用“rabbit”，而没有换成与法语“lapin”相关的词汇。”，构成起点—展开—落点的层次。
主要关系：因果、并列／递进
The peasants were allowed to eat the rabbits that scampered over their fields and, since that meat was cheap, the Norman lords of course turned up their noses at it.
句型：复合句/复杂句。含关系或连接成分 that，需结合先行词辨认定语从句/名词从句；含从属连词 since，构成时间、原因、让步、条件或比较状语；出现 be + 过去分词形式，应结合语义判断被动语态或分词形容词。
Sentence 10.1The Saxon peasants who tilled the land and reared the animals could not afford the meat, which went to Norman tables.
Sentence 10.2The peasants were allowed to eat the rabbits that scampered over their fields and, since that meat was cheap, the Norman lords of course turned up their noses at it.
Sentence 10.3So rabbit is still rabbit on our tables, and not changed into some rendering of lapin.
主旨：今天，当我们听着有关双语教育的争论时，我们应该设身处地为当时的撒克逊农民想一想。
作用：承接前文继续发展中心话题，通过事实、描写、解释或评价补充新的论证层次。
先写“今天，当我们听着有关双语教育的争论时，我们应该设身处地为当时的撒克逊农民想一想。”；中部推进到“当英国人在像觉醒者赫里沃德这样的撒克逊领袖的领导下起 义时，他们一定感受到了莫大的文化耻辱。”；最后落在““标准英语”——如果这个词语当时存在的话——已经变成了法语。900年后， 现在，在美国我们仍然继承了这种影响。”，构成起点—展开—落点的层次。
主要关系：条件／选择、时间／次序、并列／递进
There must have been a great deal of cultural humiliation felt by the English when they revolted under Saxon leaders like Hereward the Wake.
句型：复合句/复杂句。含从属连词 when，构成时间、原因、让步、条件或比较状语。
Sentence 11.1As we listen today to the arguments about bilingual education, we ought to think ourselves back into the shoes of the Saxon peasant.
Sentence 11.2The new ruling class had built a cultural barrier against him by building their French against his own language.
Sentence 11.3There must have been a great deal of cultural humiliation felt by the English when they revolted under Saxon leaders like Hereward the Wake.
Sentence 11.4“The King’s English” —if the term had existed then—had become French.
Sentence 11.5And here in America now, 900 years later, we are still the heirs to it.
主旨：那晚谈话结束后的第二天早上，有人查阅了相关资料。
作用：承接前文作因果归结，把此前事实或理由压缩为本段结论。
先写“那晚谈话结束后的第二天早上，有人查阅了相关资料。”；中部推进到“如果出现过，那就表明它在当时被广泛运用。”；最后落在“他用过一次，在《温莎的风流娘儿们》中， 快嘴妇人在讲到他家老爷回来一定会盛怒时说，“……少不了一顿臭骂，‘标准英语’不知会被……”，构成起点—展开—落点的层次。
主要关系：因果、时间／次序、并列／递进
He uses it once, when Mistress Quickly in The Merry Wives of Windsor says of her master coming home in a rage, “.. here will be an old abusing of God’s patience and the King’s English,” and it rings true.
句型：复合句/复杂句。含从属连词 when，构成时间、原因、让步、条件或比较状语；有过去分词短语，通常表示被动或完成并作后置修饰/状语。
Sentence 12.1So the next morning, the conversation over, one looked it up.
Sentence 12.2The phrase came into use some time in the 16th century.
Sentence 12.3“Queen’s English” is found in Nashe’s “Strange News of the Intercepting of Certain Letters” in 1593, and in 1602, Dekker wrote of someone, “thou clipst the Kinge’s English.”
Sentence 12.4Is the phrase in Shakespeare?
Sentence 12.5That would be the confirmation that it was in general use.
Sentence 12.6He uses it once, when Mistress Quickly in The Merry Wives of Windsor says of her master coming home in a rage, “.. here will be an old abusing of God’s patience and the King’s English,” and it rings true.
主旨：我们有理由相信这个词语就是在那一时期形成的。
作用：承接前文继续发展中心话题，通过事实、描写、解释或评价补充新的论证层次。
先写“我们有理由相信这个词语就是在那一时期形成的。”，再转入“经过了前后500年的发展以及和诺曼底王朝、安茹王朝及金雀花王朝 的法语之争，英语最终同化了法语，最终，被统治者征服了统治者，英语获得了国语地……”，形成前提—发展、描写—评价或问—答关系。
主要关系：时间／次序、并列／递进
After five centuries of growth, of tussling with the French of the Normans and the Angevins and the Plantagenets and at last absorbing it, the conquered in the end conquering the conqueror, English had come royally into its own.
句型：简单句或并列句。含从属连词 after，构成时间、原因、让步、条件或比较状语。
Sentence 13.1One could have expected that it would be about then that the phrase would be coined.
Sentence 13.2After five centuries of growth, of tussling with the French of the Normans and the Angevins and the Plantagenets and at last absorbing it, the conquered in the end conquering the conqueror, English had come royally into its own.
主旨：这样便有了令人自豪的“标准英语”。
作用：以人物对话推进情节和观念冲突；语气、答非所问、重复或反转同时承担人物刻画作用。
先写“这样便有了令人自豪的“标准英语”。”；中部推进到“伊丽莎白时代，不费吹灰之力，就使之遍及世界各地。”；最后落在““标准英语”也不再带有今 天所谓的种族歧视色彩了。”，构成起点—展开—落点的层次。
主要关系：并列／递进
The Elizabethans blew on it as on a dandelion clock, and its seeds multiplied, and floated to the ends of the earth.
句型：简单句或并列句。以直接陈述为主；先确认主语、限定谓语和宾语/表语，再处理介词短语。
Sentence 14.1There was a King’s (or Queen’s) English to be proud of.
Sentence 14.2The Elizabethans blew on it as on a dandelion clock, and its seeds multiplied, and floated to the ends of the earth.
Sentence 14.3“The King’s English” was no longer a form of what would now be regarded as racial discrimination.
主旨：不过那位澳大利亚人的评论还是有些道理的。
作用：承接前文并转折修正：先否定或限制上一层判断，再把论述推向新的方向。
先写“不过那位澳大利亚人的评论还是有些道理的。”；中部推进到“我们能 感觉到，就连快嘴妇人这样一个仆人，也会说她的主人凯厄斯会管不住自己的嘴，讲贫民说的那种粗话。”；最后落在“对文化专制的抗拒依然存 在。”，构成起点—展开—落点的层次。
主要关系：转折／对照、条件／选择、时间／次序、并列／递进
If the King’s English is “English as it should be spoken,” the-claim is often mocked by the underlings, when they say with a jeer “English as it should be spoke.”
句型：复合句/复杂句。含从属连词 if, when，构成时间、原因、让步、条件或比较状语；出现 be + 过去分词形式，应结合语义判断被动语态或分词形容词；有过去分词短语，通常表示被动或完成并作后置修饰/状语。
Sentence 15.1Yet there had been something in the remark of the Australian.
Sentence 15.2The phrase has always been used a little pejoratively and even facetiously by the lower classes.
Sentence 15.3One feels that even Mistress Quickly—a servant—is saying that Dr. Caius—her master—will lose his control and speak with the vigor of ordinary folk.
Sentence 15.4If the King’s English is “English as it should be spoken,” the-claim is often mocked by the underlings, when they say with a jeer “English as it should be spoke.”
Sentence 15.5The rebellion against a cultural dominance is still there.
主旨：正如卡莱尔所说的那样，“文字会变成具体的事物”，这一危险始终存在。
作用：承接前文继续发展中心话题，通过事实、描写、解释或评价补充新的论证层次。
先写“正如卡莱尔所说的那样，“文字会变成具体的事物”，这一危险始终存在。”；中部推进到“文字本身并非实体，他们只是实体的表现形 式，标准英语，同诺曼底人的盎格鲁法语一样，只是一种阶级象征。”；最后落在“也许，它值得学习，但不应将之作为一种法令，也不 应使之不接受来自下层阶级的改变。”，构成起点—展开—落点的层次。
主要关系：转折／对照、并列／递进
Words are not themselves a reality, but only representations of it, and the King’s English, like the Anglo-French of the Normans, is a class representation of reality.
句型：简单句或并列句。多重逗号成分构成长句，注意并列项、插入语与主谓主干的边界。
Sentence 16.1There is always a great danger, as Carlyle put it, that “words will harden into things for us.”
Sentence 16.2Words are not themselves a reality, but only representations of it, and the King’s English, like the Anglo-French of the Normans, is a class representation of reality.
Sentence 16.3Perhaps it is worth trying to speak it, but it should not be laid down as an edict, and made immune to change from below.
主旨：我一向对字典有着无尽的钟爱。
作用：承接前文继续发展中心话题，通过事实、描写、解释或评价补充新的论证层次。
先写“我一向对字典有着无尽的钟爱。”；中部推进到“奥登曾说过，一位作家的全部所需只是一支笔，足够的纸张和“他所能负担得起的最好 的字典”，但我更赞同另一种说法，字典是了解常识……”；最后落在“标准英语是一个典范——一个丰富而又极具教育意义的典范 ——但它不应该成为终极标准。”，构成起点—展开—落点的层次。
主要关系：转折／对照、并列／递进
I have an unending love affair with dictionaries—Auden once said that all a writer needs is a pen, plenty of paper and “the best dictionaries he can afford”—but I agree with the person who said that dictionaries are instruments of common sense.
句型：复合句/复杂句。含关系或连接成分 that, who，需结合先行词辨认定语从句/名词从句；分号或破折号连接/补充多个信息层次，阅读时先拆分主干再处理插入说明。
Sentence 17.1I have an unending love affair with dictionaries—Auden once said that all a writer needs is a pen, plenty of paper and “the best dictionaries he can afford”—but I agree with the person who said that dictionaries are instruments of common sense.
Sentence 17.2The King’s English is a model—a rich and instructive one—but it ought not to be an ultimatum.
主旨：现在我们可以回到先前的话题上了。
作用：承接前文作因果归结，把此前事实或理由压缩为本段结论。
先写“现在我们可以回到先前的话题上了。”；中部推进到“如果讲话如同做文章那般逗句分明，或者是如同在创作一篇行将发表的文章那样咬文嚼字，这种人无疑是最差劲的 聊天者。”；最后落在“但假若福斯特坐在我们的客厅里说“我们正依次步入这个时代的阴森险恶的长廊”，那我们完全可以请他走 开。”，构成起点—展开—落点的层次。
主要关系：因果、转折／对照、条件／选择、时间／次序、并列／递进
There is no worse conversationalist than the one who punctuates his words as he speaks as if he were writing, or even who tries to use words as if he were composing a piece of prose for print.
句型：复合句/复杂句。使用 there be 存现结构，真正信息焦点位于 be 之后；含关系或连接成分 who，需结合先行词辨认定语从句/名词从句；含从属连词 as if，构成时间、原因、让步、条件或比较状语。
Sentence 18.1So we may return to my beginning.
Sentence 18.2Even with the most educated and the most literate, the King’s English slips and slides in conversation.
Sentence 18.3There is no worse conversationalist than the one who punctuates his words as he speaks as if he were writing, or even who tries to use words as if he were composing a piece of prose for print.
Sentence 18.4When E.
Sentence 18.5M.
Sentence 18.6Forster writes of “the sinister corridor of our age,” we sit up at the vividness of the phrase, the force and even terror in the image.
Sentence 18.7But if E.
Sentence 18.8M.
Sentence 18.9Forster sat in our living room and said,
主旨：常常会有一些愚人要求文豪们像创作文章那样讲话。
作用：承接前文继续发展中心话题，通过事实、描写、解释或评价补充新的论证层次。
先写“常常会有一些愚人要求文豪们像创作文章那样讲话。”；中部推进到“但，没准那些文人雅士在那里只是在闲话家常，评论酒食的好坏。”；最后落在“当时巴黎最高法院第一厅厅长亨奥尔特在德芳侯爵 夫人家的沙龙里做客时抱怨“调料糟透了”，接着还大发议论说侯爵夫人家的厨子和总厨……”，构成起点—展开—落点的层次。
主要关系：转折／对照、时间／次序、并列／递进
Other people may celebrate the lofty conversations in which the great minds are supposed to have indulged in the great salons of 18th century Paris, but one suspects that the great minds were gossiping and judging the quality of the food and the wine.
句型：复合句/复杂句。含关系或连接成分 that, which，需结合先行词辨认定语从句/名词从句；出现 be + 过去分词形式，应结合语义判断被动语态或分词形容词。
Sentence 19.1“We are all following each other down the sinister corridor of our age,” we would be justified in asking him to leave.
Sentence 19.2Great authors are constantly being asked by foolish people to talk as they write.
Sentence 19.3Other people may celebrate the lofty conversations in which the great minds are supposed to have indulged in the great salons of 18th century Paris, but one suspects that the great minds were gossiping and judging the quality of the food and the wine.
Sentence 19.4Henault, then the great president of the First Chamber of the Paris Parlement, complained bitterly of the “terrible sauces” at the salons of Mme.
Sentence 19.5Deffand, and went on to observe that the only difference between her cook and the supreme chef, Brinvilliers, lay in their intentions.
主旨：客厅里和餐桌上是没有字典的。
作用：承接前文继续发展中心话题，通过事实、描写、解释或评价补充新的论证层次。
先写“客厅里和餐桌上是没有字典的。”；中部推进到“否 则交谈就会受到约束，不能流畅进行了。”；最后落在“我 们也就不能一会儿跳到澳大利亚，一会儿又跳回到诺曼底征服者时代去了。”，构成起点—展开—落点的层次。
主要关系：转折／对照、条件／选择、并列／递进
There would have been no conversation the other evening if we had been able to settle at once the meaning of “the King’s English.”
句型：复合句/复杂句。含从属连词 if，构成时间、原因、让步、条件或比较状语。
Sentence 20.1The one place not to have dictionaries is in a sitting room or at a dining table.
Sentence 20.2Look the thing up the next morning, but not in the middle of the conversation.
Sentence 20.3Otherwise one will bind the conversation; one will not let it flow freely here and there.
Sentence 20.4There would have been no conversation the other evening if we had been able to settle at once the meaning of “the King’s English.”
Sentence 20.5We would never have gone to Australia, or leaped back in time to the Norman Conquest.
主旨：而且也就不会再有什么可以留到第二天早上去思考的了。
作用：收束全文：回应前文的中心问题，把局部叙述或论证提升为结论、余韵或主题判断。
先写“而且也就不会再有什么可以留到第二天早上去思考的了。”；中部推进到“可能最重要的是，如果那个问题当场得到解决的话，人们就 不会对那位引出话题的“火枪手”产生兴趣，想更多了解她的情况了。”；最后落在“教黑猩猩说话之所以费劲，是因为它们可能总是试图 讲出些有意义的话来，这反而使交谈索然无味。 （摘自1979年5月6日《华盛顿……”，构成起点—展开—落点的层次。
主要关系：因果、并列／递进
Perhaps above all, one would not have been engaged by interest in the musketeer who raised the subject, wondering more about her.
句型：复合句/复杂句。含关系或连接成分 who，需结合先行词辨认定语从句/名词从句；出现 be + 过去分词形式，应结合语义判断被动语态或分词形容词；逗号后有现在分词/完成分词短语，通常作伴随、原因或结果状语。
Sentence 21.1And there would have been nothing to think about the next morning.
Sentence 21.2Perhaps above all, one would not have been engaged by interest in the musketeer who raised the subject, wondering more about her.
Sentence 21.3The bother about teaching chimpanzees how to talk is that they will probably try to talk sense and so ruin all conversation.
1. The fact that their marriages may be on the rocks：短语on the rocks指“（婚姻等）濒于破裂；（生意等）濒于破产”。 2. …or even that they got out of bed on the wrong side is simply not a concern：该句涉及到一个英语习语的用法。英国人都相 信当一个人早上起床时，如果左脚先着地，是很不吉利的，预示着这一天会有倒霉的事发生，那么相应地，这一天的心情 也会很糟糕，很郁闷，容易发脾气。习语get out of bed on the wrong side就是由此而来，其含义为“心情不好，不愉快”。 3. …although they lived side by side with each other, did not delve into each other’s lives：句中delve一词本意为“搜寻，翻查”， 此处指“探究，探索”，常用于delve into/in结构中。 4. We had traveled in five minutes to Australia：该句理解时要注意，travel指的是“思想上的转移、话题的转换”，而不是真正 意义上的长途旅行。此处，作者用travel一词，突显出“闲聊”话题转移之迅速。 5. There is always resistance in the lower classes to any attempt by an upper class to lay down rules：短语lay down此处指“制定规 则、原则等”；该短语还有“贮存”“建造”之意。例：lay down claret贮存干红葡萄酒；lay down a new railway track建造新铁 路。 6. The Saxon peasants who tilled the land and reared the animals：句中till一词意为“耕作，耕种”；rear指“饲养（家禽，家畜 等）”。 7. …the Norman lords of course turned up their nose at it：短语turn one’s nose up at sth指“轻视、蔑视某事物；看不上”。例： She turned her nose up at my small donation.她嫌我捐赠微薄而嗤之以鼻。 8. …we ought to think ourselves back into the shoes of the Saxon peasant：该句由短语be in sb’s shoes演化而来，指“（设想） 处于某人的地位或处境”。 9. …here will be an old abusing of God’s patience and the King’s English：句中old作“很多，一大堆”之意。abuse此处作“滥用， 妄用”之意。 10. the Plantagenets：金雀花王朝，指从亨利二世登基（1154年）到理查三世驾崩（1485年）这一期间统治英国的王朝。 11. The Elizabethans blew on it as on a dandelion clock：该句使用了比喻修辞，作者将English language比作dandelion，强调在 伊丽莎白时代，英语发展之迅速。 12. I have an unending love affair with dictionaries：短语have a love affair with sb.原指“与某人有暧昧关系”，此处用来表达作 者对字典的钟爱。
1. 文体 这是一篇以“标准英语”为中心的说明文（a piece of expository）。 文章一开始提到了闲聊，并讲到了酒吧闲聊的魅力所在，即酒吧里的人是companions, not intimates. 接下来文章具体到一个 闲聊话题上：“标准英语”。然后具体讲了大家是怎样自由讨论，交流意见的。文章结构比较松散，文字口语化，多出使用 暗喻和明喻的修辞手法，表达生动活泼。 2. 修辞 本文涉及的修辞手法主要有metaphor（隐喻），simile（明喻）等。 （1）metaphor Metaphor是根据两个事物间的某些共同的特征，用一事物去暗示另一事物的比喻方式。本体和喻体之间不用比喻词as， like，seem等，而用is等在暗中打比方。如：She is a legendary luminous pearl, shining beautifully at night.她是一颗夜明珠，暗 夜里发出灿烂的光芒。 （2）simile Simile是用某一事物或情境来比拟另一个事物或情境。其本体和喻体均同时出现在句中，在形式上是相对应的。其表达方 式一般是介词like，连词as，as if，动词seem等以及句型A...to B as C...to D等等表示“好像”。如：The snowflake is dancing in the air like goose feather. 雪花像鹅毛一样飞舞。
| 手法 | 核心差异 | 判定方法 |
|---|---|---|
| Metaphor 隐喻 / Simile 明喻 | 隐喻直接等同，明喻用 like、as 等标记相似。 | 先找比较标记；有标记通常是明喻，无标记再判断是否跨概念映射。 |
| Metaphor 隐喻 / Personification 拟人 | 拟人是把人的动作、感官或意志赋给非人对象。 | 只有出现人的能力时才判拟人；一般形象替换判隐喻。 |
| Metonymy 借代 / Synecdoche 提喻 | 借代依赖一般关联；提喻必须是部分与整体关系。 | 地点代机构是借代，mind/hand 等身体部分代人常是提喻。 |
| Transferred Epithet 移就 / Personification 拟人 | 移就是形容词的逻辑修饰对象发生转移；拟人是主语获得人的属性。 | 追问形容词本来应该形容谁；若只是修饰错位而无人的动作，就是移就。 |
| Parallelism 排比 / Antithesis 对照 | 排比要求结构相近；对照还要求意义方向相反。 | 相同结构可以只是累积；出现 but、while、more/less 等反向意义时可能兼有对照。 |
| Irony 反讽 / Paradox 隽语式矛盾 | 反讽存在字面与真实态度反差；悖论表面矛盾但逻辑可成立。 | 判断作者是否在嘲讽字面说法；若重点是揭示复杂真理，则更接近悖论。 |
| Hyperbole 夸张 / Litotes 曲言 | 夸张扩大程度；曲言用否定或弱化表达强意。 | all/never/endless 常提示夸张；far from/not uncommon 等常提示曲言。 |
| Enumeration 列举 / Climax 层进 | 列举只堆叠项目；层进要求强度、范围或情绪逐步增强。 | 检查能否任意调换顺序；若换序破坏递进，才是层进。 |
| Antonomasia 换称 / Metonymy 借代 | 换称多用固定别名、头衔或典型专名替代对象；借代只需一般关联。 | Big Apple 代纽约是换称；Wall Street 代金融界通常判借代。 |
| Euphemism 委婉语 / Understatement 低调陈述 | 委婉语回避禁忌、粗鲁或尴尬说法；低调陈述则有意减弱任何程度。 | 先问是否存在被社会习惯回避的直白词；若没有，只是缩小程度，则偏向低调陈述。 |
| Ellipsis 省略 / Fragment 句子残缺 | 修辞性省略依靠上下文仍能恢复成分；错误残句则缺乏可恢复依据。 | 补回省去的主语、谓语或重复结构后语义完整，才可判为 ellipsis。 |
| Symbolism 象征 / Metaphor 隐喻 | 隐喻通常作用于局部表达；象征意象会跨段或贯穿全文反复承载主题。 | 一次性的形象替换多为隐喻；反复出现并与人物命运、主题对应的 loons 属于象征。 |
| Analogy 类比 / Simile 明喻 | 明喻通常比较一个形象特征；类比会让两套关系或系统在较长论证中对应。 | 一句 like 比较常是明喻；用钟表系统解释生态系统则是类比。 |
| Rhetorical Question 反问／设问 / Genuine Question 真问 | 修辞问句用于强调或引出论点；真问以取得未知信息为目的。 | 看上下文是否立即自答、答案是否显然，以及说话人是否真的等待信息。 |
| Repetition 反复 / Anaphora 首语反复 | 反复可出现在任何位置；首语反复要求连续分句或句子用同一开头。 | 只有重复位于多个结构的起首位置时，才进一步判为 anaphora。 |
| Alliteration 头韵 / Assonance 元音韵 | 头韵重复词首辅音；元音韵重复重读元音。 | 按声音而非拼写判断；前者看开头辅音，后者看词内部重读元音。 |
| Allusion 用典 / Quotation 引语 | 用典只需唤起熟知人物或故事，不一定逐字引用；引语明确保存他人原话。 | 出现 Faust、Paradise Lost 等文化专名多为用典；带出处的原句则还可同时构成引语。 |
错综复杂的；难懂的，难以解决的
沉迷，放纵，纵情享受
漫游，闲逛
健谈者
轶事，奇闻
密友，知己
（婚姻、事业等）濒临失败；陷入困境
火枪手
钻研，调查
幽深处
随意地，漫无目的地
炼金术
野蛮的 人，没教养的人
刻薄的，尖刻的
罪犯
猪栏，猪圈
裂痕，失和
培植，饲养
蹦跳，快跑
翻译
使用两种语言的
反抗，造反
中途拦截，截断；截获（情报等）
辱骂，污蔑
杜撰，编造（新单词或短语）
格斗，斗争，扭打
蒲公英
轻蔑的，贬低的
滑稽的，幽默的
下属，部下
嘲笑，讥笑
法令，布告
豁免的，免除的
最后通牒。其复数形式为
凶兆的，不祥的
黑猩猩
英法混合的；盎格鲁—法兰西的
盎格鲁—撒克逊的；盎格鲁—撒克逊人
最著名的；最为人熟知的
Exercises I. Oral Presentation Make a five-minute presentation in class based on your close reading of the text. "Suggested topics: 1. What is the theme of the essay “Pub Talk and the King’s English”? 2. How is the essay organized? 3. What is the main idea of each part? II. Questions A. Questions on the Content 1. What, according to the writer, makes good conversation? What spoils it? 2. Why does the writer like “bar conversation” so much? 3. Does a good conversation need a focal subject? 4. Why did people in the pub talk about Australia? Why did the conversation turn to Norman England? 5. How does the use of words show class distinction? 6. When was “the King’s English” regarded as a form of racial discrimination in England? 7. What is the attitude of the writer towards “the King’s English”? 8. What does the writer mean when he says, “the King’s English, like the Anglo-French of the Normans, is a class representation of reality”? B. Questions on Structure and Style 1. What is the thesis statement of this expository writing? Where is it stated? 2. What is the function of Paragraph 2? 3. Point out the literary and historical allusions used in this piece and comment on their use. 4. What is the function of Paragraph 5? Is the change from “pub talk” to “the King’s English” too abrupt? 5. Why does the writer introduce the topic about dictionaries in Paragraph 17? 6. What is the main idea of Paragraph 18? 7. Does the writer reveal his political inclination in this piece of writing? How? Ill. Paraphrase Explain the following sentences in your own words, bringing out any implied meanings. 1. And it is an activity only of humans. (Para. 1) 2. Conversation is not for making a point. (Para. 2) 3. In fact, the best conversationalists are those who are prepared to lose. (Para. 2) 4. Bar friends are not deeply involved in each other’s lives. (Para. 3) 5. ...it could still go ignorantly on. (Para. 6) 6. They are cattle in the fields, but we sit down to beef (boeuf). (Para. 9) 7. The new ruling class had built a cultural barrier against him by building their French against his own language. (Para. 11) 8. ...English had come royally into its own. (Para. 13) 9. The phrase has always been used a little pejoratively and even facetiously by the lower classes. (Para. 15) 10. The rebellion against a cultural dominance is still there. (Para. 15) 11. There is always a great danger, as Carlyle put it, that “words will harden into things for us.” (Para. 16) IV. Practice with Words and Expressions A. Look up the dictionary and explain the meaning of the italicized idiomatic phrases. 1. ...their marriages may be on the rocks... (Para. 3) 2. ...they got out of bed on the wrong side... (Para. 3) 3. The conversation was on wings. (Para. 8) 4. ...the Norman lords of course turned up their noses at it. (Para. 10) 5, ...we ought to think ourselves back into the shoes of the Saxon peasant. (Para. 11) 6. ...English had come royally into its own. (Para. 13) 7. ...we sit up at the vividness of the phrase... (Para. 18) B. Discriminate between the following groups of synonyms. 1. ignorant, illiterate, uneducated, unlearned 2. scoff, sneer, jeer, gibe, flout C. The following sentences all contain metaphors or similes. Explain their meaning in plain, non-figurative language. 1. ...no one has any idea where it will go as it meanders or leaps and sparkles or just glows. (Para. 2) . 2. ...that they got out of bed on the wrong side is simply not a concern. (Para. 3) 3. They are like the musketeers of Dumas who, although they lived side by side with each other, did not delve into each other’s lives or the recesses of their thoughts and feelings. (Para. 3) 4, ...suddenly the alchemy of conversation took place... (Para. 4) 5. The glow of the conversation burst into flames. (Para. 6) 6. The Elizabethans blew on it as on a dandelion clock, and its seeds multiplied, and floated to the ends of the earth. (Para. 14) 7. Ihave an unending love affair with dictionaries... (Para. 17) 8. Even with the most educated and the most literate, the King’s English slips and slides in conversation. (Para 18) 9. Otherwise one will bind the conversation; one will not let it flow freely here and there. (Para. 20) 10. We would never have gone to Australia, or leaped back in time to the Norman Conquest. (Para. 20) V. Translation A. Translate the following sentences into Chinese. 1. However intricate the ways in which animals communicate with each other, they do not indulge in anything that deserves the name of conversation. (Para. 1) 2. Argument may often be a part of it, but the purpose of the argument is not to convince. There is no winning in conversation. (Para. 2) 3. Perhaps it is because of my upbringing in English pubs that I think bar conversation has a charm of its own. (Para. 3) 4. I do not remember what made one of our companions say it—she clearly had not come into the bar to say it, it was not something that was pressing on her mind— but her remark fell quite naturally into the talk. (Para. 4) 5. There is always resistance in the lower classes to any attempt by an upper class to lay down rules for “English as it should be spoken.” (Para. 7) 6. Words are not themselves a reality, but only representations of it, and the King’s English, like the Anglo-French of the Normans, is a class representation of reality. (Para. 16) 7. Perhaps it is worth trying to speak it, but it should not be laid down as an edict, and made immune to change from below. (Para. 16) 8. There is no worse conversationalist than the one who punctuates his words as he speaks as if he were writing, or even who tries to use words as if he were composing a piece of prose for print. (Para. 18) 9. When E. M. Forster writes of “the sinister corridor of our age,’ we sit up at the vividness of the phrase, the force and even terror in the image. (Para. 18) 10. There would have been no conversation the other evening if we had been able to settle at once the meaning of “the King’s English.” (Para. 20) B. Translate Paragraphs 9-11 into Chinese. Read, Think and Comment Study the model given below. Then read the next two paragraphs and explain how coherence and unity is improved by the use of transitional devices. Model: But this is only one aspect of the problem. Another, no less essential, is the wider gap between generations since the rate of social development has speeded up. The tastes and habits of young people today differ markedly from those of the young people of the thirties, let alone of the twenties. Still influenced by the tastes and habits of their own youth, the “fathers” are inclined to think these habits and tastes are absolutes and to deny their children the right to independent creativity which they demanded from their own parents. Hence the artificial conflicts, in which a dance or the width of trousers is elevated to the dignity of crucial issues. The writer uses the following transitional devices: 1) Transitional words and expressions— but, another, still, hence 2) Pronoun reference— those, their, these, they 3) Repetition of important words— tastes and habits, young people And since we (teenagers) are so new, many people have some very wrong ideas about us. For instance, the newspapers are always carrying advice-columns telling our mothers how to handle us, their “bewildered maladjusted offspring,” and the movies portray us as half-witted bops (hoodlums); and in the current best sellers, authors recall their own confused, unhappy youth. On the other hand, speakers tell us that these teen years are the happiest and freest of our lives, or hand us the “leaders of tomorrow, forge on the future” line. The general opinion is that teenagers are either car-stealing, dope-taking delinquents, or immature, weepy adolescents with nothing on our minds but boys (or girls as the case may be). Most adults have one or two attitudes toward the handling of teens—some say that only a sound beating will keep us in line; others treat us as mentally unbalanced creatures on the brink of insanity, who must be pampered and shielded at any cost. As of today, I am fed up with the food served in the campus dining hall. My disenchantment started in September—the day I bit into a hamburger to find myself staring at a long strand of grey hair that trailed out of the meat, through the mayonnaise, and over the edge of the bun. After that, | was not much surprised by the little things I came across in October and November: bugs in the salad and a bobby pin in the meatloaf, for example. Then in December the food was worse—and a little dirtier. For Christmas dinner, for instance, the cook gave me a thin slice of rolled turkey, straight out of the can, and dished up a cock-roach in my pudding. Even that was excusable (nobody is perfect), but what happened today is not: I had already eaten most of my clam chowder before I found it, at the bottom of the bowl, nestled among the diced potatoes and the chopped onions: one band-aid, slightly used.
A. 1. A good conversation does not really start from anywhere, and no one has any idea where it will go. A good conversation is not for making a point. Argument may often be a part of it, but the purpose of the argument is not to convince. When people become serious and talk as if they have something very important to say, when they argue to convince or to win their point, the conversation is spoilt. 2. The writer likes bar conversation very much because he has spent a lot of time in pubs and is used to this kind of conversation. Bar friends are companions, not intimates. They are friends but not intimate enough to be curious about each other’s private life and thoughts. 3. No. Conversation does not need a focus. But when a focal subject appears in the natural flow of conversation, the conversation becomes vivid, lively and more interesting. 4. The people talked about Australia because the speaker who introduced the subject mentioned incidentally that it was an Australian who had given her such a definition of “the King’s English.” When the people talked about the resistance in the lower classes to any attempt by an upper class to lay down rules for “English as it should be spoken”, the conversation moved to Norman England because at that time a language barrier existed between the Saxon peasants and the Norman conquerors. 5. The Saxon peasants and their Norman conquerors used different words for the same thing. For examples see paragraph 9. 6. “The King’s English” was regarded as a form of racial discrimination during the Norman rule in England about 1154—1399. 7. The writer thinks “the King’s English” is a class representation of reality. It is worth trying to speak “the King’s English”, but it should not be laid down as an edict, and made immune to change from below. The King’s English is a model a rich and instructive one—but it ought not to be an ultimatum. 8. During the Norman period, the ruling class spoke Anglo-French while the peasants spoke their native Saxon language. Language bears the stamp of the class that uses it. The King’s English today refers to the language used by the upper, educated class in England. B. 1. The thesis statement is clearly stated in the opening sentence of the first paragraph, which is “Conversation is the most sociable of all human activities.” 2. The writer explains in Para. 2 what constitutes a good conversation. It brings out the topic of the text. 3. In this essay the writer alluded to many historical and literary event such as the Norman conquest, the saloons of 18th century Paris, and the words of many a man of letters. For a short expository essay like this, the allusions used are more than expected and desirable. 4. Paragraph 5 is a transition paragraph by means of which the writer passes from a general discourse on good conversation to a particular instance of it. But one feels the change from “pub talk” to “the King’s English” a bit too abrupt. 5. The writer introduces the topic about dictionaries in Para. 17 because he wants to illustrate this point: the King’s English, which is rich and instructive, is a model but not an ultimatum. Dictionaries are just instruments of common sense. 6. In Para.18, the writer recognizes that his discussion of the King’s English at length has diverged from the subject he wants to address. Therefore, he comes back to his central theme of conversation. This paragraph mainly talks about that people make mistakes in conversation; people should not talk like a book. If someone talks as if he were writing, it’s no good conversation. 7. The writer’s attitude towards “the King’s English” shows that he is a defender of democracy. 1. And conversation is an activity which is found only among human beings (animals and birds are not capable of conversation). 2. Conversation is not for persuading others to accept our idea or point of view. 3. In fact a person who really enjoys and is skilled at conversation will not argue to win or force others to accept his point of view. 4. People who meet each other for a drink in the bar of a pub are not intimate friends for they are not deeply absorbed or engrossed in each other’s lives. 5. The conversation could go on without anybody knowing who was right or wrong. 6. These animals are called cattle when they are alive and feeding in the fields; but when we sit down at the table to eat, we call their meat beef. 7. The new ruling class by using French instead of English made it difficult for the English to accept or absorb the culture of the rulers. 8. The English language received proper recognition and was used by the King once more. 9. The phrase, the King’s English, has always been used disrespectfully and jokingly by the lower classes. The working people very often make fun of the proper and formal language of the educated people. 10. There still exists in the working people, as in the early Saxon peasants, a spirit of opposition to the cultural authority of the ruling class. 11. There is always a great danger that we might forget that words are only symbols and take them for things they are supposed to represent. For example, the word “dog” is a symbol representing a kind of animal. We mustn’t regard the word “dog” as being the animal itself. A. 1. on the rocks: metaphor, comparing a marriage to a ship wrecked on the rocks 2. get out of bed on the wrong side: be cross or in a bad temper for the day (The meaning is perhaps derived from the expression “You got out of bed the wrong way”. It was an ancient superstition that it was unlucky to set the left foot on the ground first on getting out of bed.) 3. on wings: metaphor, comparing conversation to a bird flying and soaring. It means the conversation soon became spirited and exciting. 4. turn up one’s nose at: scorn; show scorn for 5. into the shoes: metaphor (or more appropriately an idiomatic expression), think as if one were wearing the shoes of the Saxon peasant, i.e. as if one were a Saxon peasant 6 come into one’s own: receive what properly belongs to one, especially acclaim or recognition 7. sit up at: (colloquial) become suddenly alert B. 1. ignorant可指知识水平低，也可指对特定事件或主题缺少了解或知晓。如：I’m ignorant of his plan.（我对他的计划一无所 知。）illiterate常指达不到最低阅读和写作水平。uneducated指缺少学校教育。unlearned指缺少文化教育（未必无知），既 可指一无所长，又可指某一方面所知有限，如：unlearned in philosophy（对哲学懂得有限）。 2. scoff指对某事疑惑不信或缺乏尊敬而用无礼、轻蔑的言词或加以嘲笑。sneer侧重于面部表情或语气中所含的轻蔑嘲笑之 意。jeer侧重指用粗俗的、侮辱性的言词或粗鲁的嘲笑来表示轻侮。gibe通常指不带恶意的取笑或作弄人的笑骂。flout主要 指以不理不睬或视而不见的态度表示出的轻侮蔑视。 C. 1. No one knows how the conversation will go as it moves aimlessly and desultorily or as it becomes spirited and exciting. 2. It is not a matter of interest if they are cross or in a bad temper. 3. Bar friends, although they met each other frequently, did not delve into each other’s lives or the recesses of their thoughts and feelings. 4. Suddenly a miraculous change in the conversation took place. 5. The conversation suddenly became spirited and exciting. 6. The Elizabethan writers spread the English language far and wide. 7. I have always had an eager interest in dictionaries. 8. Even the most educated and literate people use non-standard, informal, colloquial English in their conversation. 9. Otherwise one will tie up the conversation and will not let it go on freely. 10. We would never have talked about Australia, or the language barrier in the time of the Norman Conquest. V. See the translation of the text. Coherence and unity can be enhanced by continuity in the paragraph. Continuity gives writing a sense of smoothness. Good organization is essential for continuity, because the clear, logical arrangement makes the order of thought easy to follow. But good transitions also help to make the writing smooth. The three common transitional devices are: pronoun reference, repetition of important words, and transitional expression. The two paragraphs in the exercises employ these three methods to establish continuity and so improve coherence and unity of the paragraphs. Paragraph 1 （1）Transitional words and expressions: for instance, on the other hand （2）Pronoun reference: we (referring back to teen-agers), us, our, us, us, our, us, our, us, us （3）Repetition of important words: teen-agers, teen-years, teen-agers, teens Paragraph 2 （1）Transitional words and expressions: As of today, After that, Then, for instance, even that （2）Pronoun reference: I, my, I, myself, I, I, me, my, I, I （3）Repetition of important words: food (and names of different kinds of food)